Principles of Anatomy and Physiology

1 An Introduction to the Human Body 1

1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Defined 2

1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems 2

1.3 Characteristics of the Living Human Organism 5

1.4 Homeostasis 8

1.5 Basic Anatomical Terminology 13

1.6 Aging and Homeostasis 21

1.7 Medical Imaging 22

Chapter Review 25 / Critical Thinking Questions 27 / Answers to Figure Questions 27

2 The Chemical Level of Organization 28

2.1 How Matter Is Organized 29

2.2 Chemical Bonds 32

2.3 Chemical Reactions 36

2.4 Inorganic Compounds and Solutions 39

2.5 Overview of Organic Compounds 43

2.6 Carbohydrates 44

2.7 Lipids 46

2.8 Proteins 49

2.9 Nucleic Acids 54

2.10 Adenosine Triphosphate 56

Chapter Review 57 / Critical Thinking Questions 59 / Answers to Figure Questions 59

3 The Cellular Level of Organization 60

3.1 Parts of a Cell 61

3.2 The Plasma Membrane 62

3.3 Transport across the Plasma Membrane 65

3.4 Cytoplasm 74

3.5 Nucleus 85

3.6 Protein Synthesis 88

3.7 Cell Division 92

3.8 Cellular Diversity 99

3.9 Aging and Cells 99

Chapter Review 102 / Critical Thinking Questions 104 / Answers to Figure Questions 105

4 The Tissue Level of Organization 106

4.1 Types of Tissues 107

4.2 Cell Junctions 108

4.3 Comparison between Epithelial and Connective Tissues 109

4.4 Epithelial Tissue 110

4.5 Connective Tissue 122

4.6 Membranes 133

4.7 Muscular Tissue 135

4.8 Nervous Tissue 137

4.9 Excitable Cells 138

4.10 Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis 138

4.11 Aging and Tissues 139

Chapter Review 141 / Critical Thinking Questions 142 / Answers to Figure Questions 143

5 The Integumentary System 144

5.1 Structure of the Skin 145

5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin 152

5.3 Types of Skin 158

5.4 Functions of the Skin 158

5.5 Maintaining Homeostasis: Skin Wound Healing 160

5.6 Development of the Integumentary System 161

5.7 Aging and the Integumentary System 163

Chapter Review 169 / Critical Thinking Questions 170 /Answers to Figure Questions 170

6 The Skeletal System: Bone Tissue 171

6.1 Functions of Bone and the SkeletalSystem 172

6.2 Structure of Bone 172

6.3 Histology of Bone Tissue 174

6.4 Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone 177

6.5 Bone Formation 178

6.6 Fracture and Repair of Bone 185

6.7 Bone''s Role in Calcium Homeostasis 188

6.8 Exercise and Bone Tissue 189

6.9 Aging and Bone Tissue 189

Chapter Review 192 / Critical Thinking Questions 193 / Answers to Figure Questions 193

7 The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton 194

7.1 Divisions of the Skeletal System 195

7.2 Types of Bones 197

7.3 Bone Surface Markings 197

7.4 Skull: An Overview 198

7.5 Cranial Bones 199

7.6 Facial Bones 208

7.7 Special Features of the Skull 210

7.8 Hyoid Bone 215

7.9 Vertebral Column 215

7.10 Vertebral Regions 218

7.11 Thorax 225

Chapter Review 231 / Critical Thinking Questions 232 / Answers to Figure Questions 232

8 The Skeletal System: The Appendicular Skeleton 234

8.1 Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle 235

8.2 Upper Limb (Extremity) 238

8.3 Pelvic (Hip) Girdle 243

8.4 False and True Pelves 245

8.5 Comparison of Female and Male Pelves 247

8.6 Lower Limb (Extremity) 247

8.7 Development of the Skeletal System 255

Chapter Review 259

9 Joints 260

9.1 Joint Classifications 261

9.2 Fibrous Joints 261

9.3 Cartilaginous Joints 263

9.4 Synovial Joints 264

9.5 Types of Movements at Synovial Joints 266

9.6 Types of Synovial Joints 271

9.7 Factors Aff ecting Contact and Range of Motion at Synovial Joints 274

9.8 Selected Joints of the Body 274

9.9 Temporomandibular Joint 277

9.10 Shoulder Joint 278

9.11 Elbow Joint 281

9.12 Hip Joint 282

9.13 Knee Joint 284

9.14 Aging and Joints 287

9.15 Arthroplasty 287

Chapter Review 291 / Critical Thinking Questions 292 / Answers to Figure Questions 292

10 Muscular Tissue 293

10.1 Overview of Muscular Tissue 294

10.2 Structure of Skeletal Muscle Tissue 295

10.3 Contraction and Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 304

10.4 Muscle Metabolism 312

10.5 Control of Muscle Tension 315

10.6 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 318

10.7 Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue 319

10.8 Cardiac Muscle Tissue 321

10.9 Smooth Muscle Tissue 321

10.10 Regeneration of Muscular Tissue 323

10.11 Development of Muscle 325

10.12 Aging and Muscular Tissue 325

Chapter Review 327 / Critical Thinking Questions 329 / Answers to Figure Questions 329

11 The Muscular System 330

11.1 How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movements 331

11.2 How Skeletal Muscles Are Named 335

11.3 Overview of the Principal Skeletal Muscles 335

11.4 Muscles of the Head That Produce Facial Expressions 339

11.5 Muscles of the Head That Move the Eyeballs (Extrinsic Eye Muscles) and Upper Eyelids 342

11.6 Muscles That Move the Mandible and Assist in Mastication and Speech 344

11.7 Muscles of the Head That Move the Tongue and Assist in Mastication and Speech 345

11.8 Muscles of the Anterior Neck That Assist in Deglutition and Speech 347

11.9 Muscles of the Neck That Move the Head 349

11.10 Muscles of the Abdomen That Protect Abdominal Viscera and Move the Vertebral Column 351

11.11 Muscles of the Thorax That Assist in Breathing 354

11.12 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor That Support the Pelvic Viscera and Function as Sphincters 357

11.13 Muscles of the Perineum 358

11.14 Muscles of the Thorax That Move the Pectoral Girdle 360

11.15 Muscles of the Thorax and Shoulder That Move the Humerus 363

11.16 Muscles of the Arm That Move the Radius and Ulna 366

11.17 Muscles of the Forearm That Move the Wrist, Hand, Thumb, and Digits 370

11.18 Muscles of the Palm That Move the Digits--Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand 375

11.19 Muscles of the Neck and Back That Move the Vertebral Column 379

11.20 Muscles of the Gluteal Region That Move the Femur 383

11.21 Muscles of the Thigh That Move the Femur, Tibia, and Fibula 389

11.22 Muscles of the Leg That Move the Foot and Toes 391

11.23 Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot That Move the Toes 396

Chapter Review 401 / Critical Thinking Questions 402 / Answers to Figure Questions 402

12 Nervous Tissue 403

12.1 Overview of the Nervous System 404

12.2 Histology of Nervous Tissue 406

12.3 Electrical Signals in Neurons: An Overview 414

12.4 Resting Membrane Potential 418

12.5 Graded Potentials 420

12.6 Action Potentials 422

12.7 Signal Transmission at Synapses 428

12.8 Neurotransmitters 435

12.9 Neural Circuits 438

12.10 Regeneration and Repair of Nervous Tissue 440

Chapter Review 442 / Critical Thinking Questions 444 / Answers to Figure Questions 444

13 The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 446

13.1 Spinal Cord Anatomy 447

13.2 Spinal Nerves 453

13.3 Cervical Plexus 456

13.4 Brachial Plexus 458

13.5 Lumbar Plexus 461

13.6 Sacral and Coccygeal Plexuses 463

13.7 Spinal Cord Physiology 465

Chapter Review 475 / Critical Thinking Questions 476 / Answers to Figure Questions 476

14 The Brain and Cranial Nerves 477

14.1 Brain Organization, Protection, and Blood Supply 478

14.2 Cerebrospinal Fluid 481

14.3 The Brainstem and Reticular Formation 486

14.4 The Cerebellum 491

14.5 The Diencephalon 493

14.6 The Cerebrum 496

14.7 Functional Organization of the Cerebral Cortex 501

14.8 Cranial Nerves: An Overview 506

14.9 Olfactory (I) Nerve 507

14.10 Optic (II) Nerve 508

14.11 Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV), and Abducens (VI) Nerves 509

14.12 Trigeminal (V) Nerve 511

14.13 Facial (VII) Nerve 512

14.14 Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Nerve 513

14.15 Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve 514

14.16 Vagus (X) Nerve 515

14.17 Accessory (XI) Nerve 516

14.18 Hypoglossal (XII) Nerve 517

14.19 Development of the Nervous System 519

14.20 Aging and the Nervous System 521

Chapter Review 523 / Critical Thinking Questions 525 / Answers to Figure Questions 525

15 The Autonomic Nervous System 526

15.1 Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems 527

15.2 Anatomy of Autonomic Motor Pathways 529

15.3 ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors 537

15.4 Physiology of the ANS 540

15.5 Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions 543

Chapter Review 546 / Critical Thinking Questions 546 / Answers to Figure Questions 547

16 Sensory, Motor, and Integrative Systems 548

16.1 Sensation 549

16.2 Somatic Sensations 552

16.3 Somatic Sensory Pathways 557

16.4 Control of Body Movement 562

16.5 Integrative Functions of the Cerebrum 569

Chapter Review 574 / Critical Thinking Questions 575 / Answers to Figure Questions 575

17 The Special Senses 576

17.1 Olfaction: Sense of Smell 577

17.2 Gustation: Sense of Taste 580

17.3 Vision: An Overview 584

17.4 Accessory Structures of the Eye 584

17.5 Anatomy of the Eyeball 587

17.6 Physiology of Vision 592